Hyperplasia

Atrophy

Hypertrophy

Dysplasia

Chromatin condensation without inflammation

Cell swelling and membrane rupture

Release of lysosomal enzymes into surrounding tissue

Neutrophil infiltration at the site of death

Hypertrophy

Hyperplasia

Dysplasia

Metaplasia

Chromatin condensation

Cellular swelling

Lipid accumulation

Nuclear pyknosis

Glucose

ATP

Reactive oxygen species

Sodium ions

Histamine

Fibrin

Collagen

IL-10

Exudate

Transudate

Haemothorax

Chylothorax

Bacterial pneumonia

Viral pneumonia

Sarcoidosis

Tuberculosis

Neutrophils

Mast cells

Macrophages

Fibroblasts

Secondary intention

Primary intention

Tertiary intention

Resolution

Respiratory acidosis with metabolic compensation

Metabolic acidosis with respiratory compensation

Metabolic alkalosis

Respiratory alkalosis

Hypercalcaemia

Hypernatraemia

Hyperkalaemia

Hypocalcaemia

Increased hydrostatic pressure from portal hypertension alone

Increased lymphatic flow

Decreased oncotic pressure from hypoalbuminaemia

Increased capillary permeability due to infection

Hypokalaemia

Hyperkalaemia

Hypernatraemia

Hypermagnesaemia

Primary respiratory acidosis

Primary respiratory alkalosis

Respiratory compensation for metabolic acidosis

Metabolic compensation for respiratory acidosis

IgA

IgM

IgG

IgE

Type I hypersensitivity

Type III hypersensitivity

Type II hypersensitivity

Type IV hypersensitivity

Mast cells and IgE

Eosinophils

CD4+ T lymphocytes

B lymphocytes

Microbial antigens resembling self-antigens leading to cross-reactive immune attack

Failure to produce sufficient regulatory T cells in the thymus

Overproduction of IgE in response to environmental antigens

Polyclonal B-cell activation without antigen-specificity

Slower antibody production than the primary response

Production of mainly IgM antibodies

Greater neutrophil recruitment than the primary response

Faster, more robust IgG production due to memory cells

Benign adenoma

Metaplasia

Malignant carcinoma

Reactive hyperplasia

Oncogene

Tumour suppressor gene

DNA repair gene

Proto-oncogene (normal function)

Resisting apoptosis

Evading immune destruction

Sustaining genome instability

Inducing angiogenesis

Localised tumour with no lymph node or distant spread

Tumour with regional lymph node involvement but no distant metastasis

Distant metastasis with no lymph node involvement

In-situ carcinoma confined to the mucosa

Loss of p53 tumour suppressor function

Overexpression of VEGF

Activation of telomerase

Upregulation of PD-L1

Left anterior descending artery

Right coronary artery

Left circumflex artery

Left main coronary artery

Ventricular wall stretch due to volume overload

Reduced renal perfusion pressure

Activation of the sympathetic nervous system

Pulmonary hypertension

Increasing heart rate to improve cardiac output

Directly increasing myocardial contractility

Blocking beta-adrenergic receptors in the myocardium

Reducing afterload and preload by blocking angiotensin II formation

Bronchospasm from allergic reaction

Right heart failure causing pleural effusion

Elevated pulmonary capillary pressure causing alveolar flooding

Pneumonia causing consolidation

Smooth muscle cells migrate into the adventitia

Macrophages engulf oxidised LDL in the arterial intima

Platelets aggregate at the endothelial surface

Fibrin is deposited within the vessel wall

Obstructive lung disease

Restrictive lung disease

Combined obstructive and restrictive pattern

Normal spirometry

Increased mucus production blocks the airways

Bronchospasm narrows the airway lumen

Loss of elastic recoil causes airway collapse on expiration

Pulmonary hypertension increases airway resistance

Lie the patient flat and apply a non-rebreather mask

Sit the patient upright and apply supplemental oxygen

Administer corticosteroids before giving oxygen

Place the patient in the Trendelenburg position

Pneumothorax

Community-acquired pneumonia

Acute heart failure

Pulmonary embolism

Ventilation-perfusion mismatch with normal respiratory drive

Diffusion impairment across the alveolar-capillary membrane

Alveolar hypoventilation with inadequate CO2 elimination

Right-to-left intracardiac shunting

Prerenal AKI

Intrinsic renal AKI due to glomerulonephritis

Intrinsic renal AKI due to acute tubular necrosis

Postrenal AKI

Nephritic syndrome due to post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis

Nephrotic syndrome due to minimal change disease

Urinary tract infection

Henoch-Schonlein purpura nephritis

Chronic kidney disease due to diabetic nephropathy

Acute tubular necrosis

Nephrotic syndrome from membranous nephropathy

Prerenal AKI from osmotic diuresis

Iron malabsorption from uraemic enteropathy

Haemolysis from accumulation of uraemic toxins

Reduced erythropoietin production by the damaged kidney

Vitamin B12 deficiency from restricted renal diet

Generalised tonic-clonic seizure

Hypertensive emergency

Pulmonary oedema

Life-threatening cardiac arrhythmia

Ischaemic stroke

Hemiplegic migraine

Transient ischaemic attack (TIA)

Todd paresis post-seizure

Cushing triad

Beck triad

Anaphylaxis response

Meningism

Peripheral nerve

Anterior horn cell

Neuromuscular junction

Upper motor neuron pathway

Perform lumbar puncture immediately to confirm diagnosis

Administer empirical intravenous antibiotics immediately

Order CT head before any treatment

Commence antiviral therapy and wait for culture results

Alpha-synuclein aggregates

TDP-43 inclusions

Amyloid-beta plaques and tau tangles

Prion protein deposits

Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)

Hyperosmolar hyperglycaemic state (HHS)

Lactic acidosis

Hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar non-ketotic coma (HONK) with acidosis

Hyperthyroidism

Secondary hypothyroidism

Primary hypothyroidism

Sick euthyroid syndrome

Addison disease

Conn syndrome

Phaeochromocytoma

Iatrogenic Cushing syndrome

Cortisol

Aldosterone

DHEA

Adrenaline (epinephrine)

Drives potassium into cells via Na+/K+-ATPase stimulation

Increases urinary potassium excretion directly

Inhibits aldosterone-mediated potassium retention

Causes potassium loss through osmotic diuresis

Increased gastric acid secretion from COX-2 activation

Reduced mucosal prostaglandin synthesis impairing protective barrier

Direct physical destruction of the gastric mucus layer

Bile reflux induced by NSAID use

Digestion of blood produces an ammonia load that the cirrhotic liver cannot detoxify

Haemorrhage directly reduces cerebral perfusion pressure

Blood loss triggers release of inflammatory cytokines crossing the blood-brain barrier

Anaemia from blood loss reduces oxygen delivery to brain cells

Ruptured ovarian cyst

Mesenteric adenitis

Sigmoid diverticulitis

Acute appendicitis

Prehepatic jaundice

Hepatic (hepatocellular) jaundice

Posthepatic (obstructive) jaundice

Haemolytic jaundice

Mucosal-only inflammation limited to the colon

Transmural inflammation with skip lesions and granulomas

Continuous inflammation always involving the rectum

Predominantly haemorrhagic presentation without bowel wall thickening

Osteoarthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis

Gout

Pseudogout

Pseudogout

Septic arthritis

Gout

Rheumatoid arthritis

Deep vein thrombosis

Acute compartment syndrome

Cellulitis

Complex regional pain syndrome

ANA (antinuclear antibody)

Anti-dsDNA

Rheumatoid factor

Anti-CCP (anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide)

Osteoporosis

Osteopenia

Normal bone density for age

Osteomalacia

Immediate bone marrow biopsy

Urgent chemotherapy

Supplemental oxygen, IV fluids, and analgesia

Splenectomy

Iron deficiency anaemia

Vitamin B12 deficiency

Anaemia of chronic disease

Beta-thalassaemia trait

Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP)

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT)

Von Willebrand disease

Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)

Endothelial injury

Venous stasis

Hypercoagulability

Platelet dysfunction

Disseminated intravascular coagulation

Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia

Immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP)

Aplastic anaemia

Uterine fibroids

Endometriosis

Pelvic inflammatory disease

Adenomyosis

Urinary tract infection

Acute appendicitis

Ruptured ovarian cyst

Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)

Primary ovarian insufficiency (premature menopause)

Hypothyroidism

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)

Hyperprolactinaemia

Primary syphilis

Genital herpes

Chancroid

Lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV)

Gestational hypertension

Pre-eclampsia with severe features

HELLP syndrome

Eclampsia

Advanced age and diabetes only

Infection and anaemia only

Immobility, moisture from incontinence, and poor nutrition

Hypertension and dehydration alone

Severe sepsis only

Systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS)

Hypovolaemic shock from dehydration

Septic shock

The body releases endorphins masking pain from severe burns

Nerve endings in the dermis are destroyed in full-thickness burns

Full-thickness burns activate a central pain-inhibition reflex

Oedema from the burn compresses local sensory nerves

Anti-dsDNA

Anti-CCP

Anti-Scl-70

Anti-Ro (SSA)

Atopic eczema (atopic dermatitis)

Systemic lupus erythematosus

Psoriasis

Urticaria (hives)